Linux Forensics

Reading time: 17 minutes

Initial Information Gathering

Basic Information

Kwanza kabisa, inashauriwa kuwa na USB yenye binaries na maktaba zinazojulikana vizuri (unaweza tu kupata ubuntu na nakala za folda /bin, /sbin, /lib, na /lib64), kisha ung'anisha USB, na badilisha mabadiliko ya mazingira ili kutumia binaries hizo:

export PATH=/mnt/usb/bin:/mnt/usb/sbin
export LD_LIBRARY_PATH=/mnt/usb/lib:/mnt/usb/lib64

Mara tu umepanga mfumo kutumia binaries nzuri na zinazojulikana unaweza kuanza kuchota taarifa za msingi:

date #Date and time (Clock may be skewed, Might be at a different timezone)
uname -a #OS info
ifconfig -a || ip a #Network interfaces (promiscuous mode?)
ps -ef #Running processes
netstat -anp #Proccess and ports
lsof -V #Open files
netstat -rn; route #Routing table
df; mount #Free space and mounted devices
free #Meam and swap space
w #Who is connected
last -Faiwx #Logins
lsmod #What is loaded
cat /etc/passwd #Unexpected data?
cat /etc/shadow #Unexpected data?
find /directory -type f -mtime -1 -print #Find modified files during the last minute in the directory

Taarifa za Kutia Shaka

Wakati wa kupata taarifa za msingi unapaswa kuangalia mambo ya ajabu kama:

• Mchakato wa Root kawaida huendesha na PIDS za chini, hivyo ikiwa unapata mchakato wa root wenye PID kubwa unaweza kushuku
• Angalia kuingia kwa watumiaji waliojiandikisha bila shell ndani ya /etc/passwd
• Angalia hash za nywila ndani ya /etc/shadow kwa watumiaji bila shell

Dump ya Kumbukumbu

Ili kupata kumbukumbu ya mfumo unaoendesha, inashauriwa kutumia LiME.
Ili kuunda hiyo, unahitaji kutumia kernel sawa ambayo mashine ya mwathirika inatumia.

Hivyo, ikiwa una toleo sawa la Ubuntu unaweza kutumia apt-get install lime-forensics-dkms
Katika hali nyingine, unahitaji kupakua LiME kutoka github na kuunda hiyo kwa kutumia vichwa vya kernel sahihi. Ili kupata vichwa vya kernel sahihi vya mashine ya mwathirika, unaweza tu kunakili directory /lib/modules/<kernel version> kwenye mashine yako, na kisha kuunda LiME kwa kutumia hivyo:

make -C /lib/modules/<kernel version>/build M=$PWD
sudo insmod lime.ko "path=/home/sansforensics/Desktop/mem_dump.bin format=lime"

LiME inasaidia format 3:

• Raw (sehemu zote zimeunganishwa pamoja)
• Padded (sawa na raw, lakini na sifuri kwenye bits za kulia)
• Lime (format inayopendekezwa yenye metadata)

LiME pia inaweza kutumika kutuma dump kupitia mtandao badala ya kuihifadhi kwenye mfumo kwa kutumia kitu kama: path=tcp:4444

Disk Imaging

Shutting down

Kwanza kabisa, utahitaji kuzima mfumo. Hii si chaguo kila wakati kwani wakati mwingine mfumo utakuwa seva ya uzalishaji ambayo kampuni haiwezi kumudu kuzima.
Kuna njia 2 za kuzima mfumo, kuzima kawaida na kuzima "kuvuta plug". Ya kwanza itaruhusu mchakato kumalizika kama kawaida na filesystem kuwa synchronized, lakini pia itaruhusu malware inayoweza kuharibu ushahidi. Njia ya "kuvuta plug" inaweza kuleta kupoteza taarifa (sio nyingi za taarifa zitapotea kwani tayari tumepata picha ya kumbukumbu) na malware haitakuwa na fursa yoyote ya kufanya chochote kuhusu hilo. Hivyo, ikiwa unadhani kuna malware, tekeleza tu amri ya sync kwenye mfumo na uvute plug.

Taking an image of the disk

Ni muhimu kutambua kwamba kabla ya kuunganisha kompyuta yako na chochote kinachohusiana na kesi, unahitaji kuwa na uhakika kwamba itakuwa imewekwa kama kusoma pekee ili kuepuka kubadilisha taarifa yoyote.

#Create a raw copy of the disk
dd if=<subject device> of=<image file> bs=512

#Raw copy with hashes along the way (more secure as it checks hashes while it's copying the data)
dcfldd if=<subject device> of=<image file> bs=512 hash=<algorithm> hashwindow=<chunk size> hashlog=<hash file>
dcfldd if=/dev/sdc of=/media/usb/pc.image hash=sha256 hashwindow=1M hashlog=/media/usb/pc.hashes

Disk Image pre-analysis

Kuchora picha ya diski bila data zaidi.

#Find out if it's a disk image using "file" command
file disk.img
disk.img: Linux rev 1.0 ext4 filesystem data, UUID=59e7a736-9c90-4fab-ae35-1d6a28e5de27 (extents) (64bit) (large files) (huge files)

#Check which type of disk image it's
img_stat -t evidence.img
raw
#You can list supported types with
img_stat -i list
Supported image format types:
raw (Single or split raw file (dd))
aff (Advanced Forensic Format)
afd (AFF Multiple File)
afm (AFF with external metadata)
afflib (All AFFLIB image formats (including beta ones))
ewf (Expert Witness Format (EnCase))

#Data of the image
fsstat -i raw -f ext4 disk.img
FILE SYSTEM INFORMATION
--------------------------------------------
File System Type: Ext4
Volume Name:
Volume ID: 162850f203fd75afab4f1e4736a7e776

Last Written at: 2020-02-06 06:22:48 (UTC)
Last Checked at: 2020-02-06 06:15:09 (UTC)

Last Mounted at: 2020-02-06 06:15:18 (UTC)
Unmounted properly
Last mounted on: /mnt/disk0

Source OS: Linux
[...]

#ls inside the image
fls -i raw -f ext4 disk.img
d/d 11: lost+found
d/d 12: Documents
d/d 8193:       folder1
d/d 8194:       folder2
V/V 65537:      $OrphanFiles

#ls inside folder
fls -i raw -f ext4 disk.img 12
r/r 16: secret.txt

#cat file inside image
icat -i raw -f ext4 disk.img 16
ThisisTheMasterSecret

Tafuta Malware inayojulikana

Faili za Mfumo Zilizobadilishwa

Linux inatoa zana za kuhakikisha uaminifu wa vipengele vya mfumo, muhimu kwa kugundua faili zinazoweza kuwa na matatizo.

• Mifumo ya RedHat: Tumia rpm -Va kwa ukaguzi wa kina.
• Mifumo ya Debian: dpkg --verify kwa uthibitisho wa awali, ikifuatiwa na debsums | grep -v "OK$" (baada ya kufunga debsums kwa apt-get install debsums) ili kubaini matatizo yoyote.

Vifaa vya Kugundua Malware/Rootkit

Soma ukurasa ufuatao kujifunza kuhusu zana ambazo zinaweza kuwa na manufaa katika kutafuta malware:

Malware Analysis

Tafuta programu zilizowekwa

Ili kutafuta kwa ufanisi programu zilizowekwa kwenye mifumo ya Debian na RedHat, fikiria kutumia kumbukumbu za mfumo na hifadhidata pamoja na ukaguzi wa mikono katika directories za kawaida.

• Kwa Debian, angalia /var/lib/dpkg/status na /var/log/dpkg.log ili kupata maelezo kuhusu usakinishaji wa pakiti, ukitumia grep kuchuja taarifa maalum.
• Watumiaji wa RedHat wanaweza kuuliza hifadhidata ya RPM kwa rpm -qa --root=/mntpath/var/lib/rpm ili orodhesha pakiti zilizowekwa.

Ili kugundua programu zilizowekwa kwa mikono au nje ya wasimamizi hawa wa pakiti, chunguza directories kama /usr/local, /opt, /usr/sbin, /usr/bin, /bin, na /sbin. Changanya orodha za directories na amri maalum za mfumo ili kubaini executable zisizohusishwa na pakiti zinazojulikana, kuboresha utafutaji wako wa programu zote zilizowekwa.

# Debian package and log details
cat /var/lib/dpkg/status | grep -E "Package:|Status:"
cat /var/log/dpkg.log | grep installed
# RedHat RPM database query
rpm -qa --root=/mntpath/var/lib/rpm
# Listing directories for manual installations
ls /usr/sbin /usr/bin /bin /sbin
# Identifying non-package executables (Debian)
find /sbin/ -exec dpkg -S {} \; | grep "no path found"
# Identifying non-package executables (RedHat)
find /sbin/ –exec rpm -qf {} \; | grep "is not"
# Find exacuable files
find / -type f -executable | grep <something>

Recover Deleted Running Binaries

Fikiria mchakato ambao ulitekelezwa kutoka /tmp/exec na kisha kufutwa. Inawezekana kuutoa

cd /proc/3746/ #PID with the exec file deleted
head -1 maps #Get address of the file. It was 08048000-08049000
dd if=mem bs=1 skip=08048000 count=1000 of=/tmp/exec2 #Recorver it

Kagua maeneo ya Autostart

Kazi za Ratiba

cat /var/spool/cron/crontabs/*  \
/var/spool/cron/atjobs \
/var/spool/anacron \
/etc/cron* \
/etc/at* \
/etc/anacrontab \
/etc/incron.d/* \
/var/spool/incron/* \

#MacOS
ls -l /usr/lib/cron/tabs/ /Library/LaunchAgents/ /Library/LaunchDaemons/ ~/Library/LaunchAgents/

Hunt: Cron/Anacron abuse via 0anacron and suspicious stubs

Washambuliaji mara nyingi huhariri stub ya 0anacron iliyopo chini ya kila /etc/cron.*/ directory ili kuhakikisha utekelezaji wa mara kwa mara.

# List 0anacron files and their timestamps/sizes
for d in /etc/cron.*; do [ -f "$d/0anacron" ] && stat -c '%n %y %s' "$d/0anacron"; done

# Look for obvious execution of shells or downloaders embedded in cron stubs
grep -R --line-number -E 'curl|wget|/bin/sh|python|bash -c' /etc/cron.*/* 2>/dev/null

Hunt: SSH hardening rollback and backdoor shells

Mabadiliko kwenye sshd_config na mifumo ya akaunti za shell ni ya kawaida baada ya matumizi ili kuhifadhi ufikiaji.

# Root login enablement (flag "yes" or lax values)
grep -E '^\s*PermitRootLogin' /etc/ssh/sshd_config

# System accounts with interactive shells (e.g., games → /bin/sh)
awk -F: '($7 ~ /bin\/(sh|bash|zsh)/ && $1 ~ /^(games|lp|sync|shutdown|halt|mail|operator)$/) {print}' /etc/passwd

Hunt: Cloud C2 markers (Dropbox/Cloudflare Tunnel)

• Dropbox API beacons kwa kawaida hutumia api.dropboxapi.com au content.dropboxapi.com kupitia HTTPS na Authorization: Bearer tokens.
• Hunt katika proxy/Zeek/NetFlow kwa ajili ya Dropbox egress isiyotarajiwa kutoka kwa seva.
• Cloudflare Tunnel (cloudflared) inatoa backup C2 kupitia outbound 443.

ps aux | grep -E '[c]loudflared|trycloudflare'
systemctl list-units | grep -i cloudflared

Services

Njia ambapo malware inaweza kufungwa kama huduma:

• /etc/inittab: Inaita skripti za kuanzisha kama rc.sysinit, ikielekeza zaidi kwenye skripti za kuanzisha.
• /etc/rc.d/ na /etc/rc.boot/: Zina skripti za kuanzisha huduma, ya pili ikipatikana katika matoleo ya zamani ya Linux.
• /etc/init.d/: Inatumika katika matoleo fulani ya Linux kama Debian kwa kuhifadhi skripti za kuanzisha.
• Huduma zinaweza pia kuanzishwa kupitia /etc/inetd.conf au /etc/xinetd/, kulingana na toleo la Linux.
• /etc/systemd/system: Katalogi ya skripti za meneja wa mfumo na huduma.
• /etc/systemd/system/multi-user.target.wants/: Inashikilia viungo kwa huduma ambazo zinapaswa kuanzishwa katika kiwango cha kuendesha watumiaji wengi.
• /usr/local/etc/rc.d/: Kwa huduma za kawaida au za wahusika wengine.
• ~/.config/autostart/: Kwa programu za kuanzisha kiotomatiki maalum kwa mtumiaji, ambazo zinaweza kuwa mahali pa kuficha malware inayolenga watumiaji.
• /lib/systemd/system/: Faili za kitengo za kawaida za mfumo zinazotolewa na pakiti zilizowekwa.

Kernel Modules

Moduli za kernel za Linux, mara nyingi hutumiwa na malware kama sehemu za rootkit, zinawekwa wakati wa kuanzisha mfumo. Katalogi na faili muhimu kwa moduli hizi ni pamoja na:

• /lib/modules/$(uname -r): Inashikilia moduli za toleo la kernel linaloendesha.
• /etc/modprobe.d: Inashikilia faili za usanidi kudhibiti upakiaji wa moduli.
• /etc/modprobe na /etc/modprobe.conf: Faili za mipangilio ya kimataifa ya moduli.

Other Autostart Locations

Linux inatumia faili mbalimbali kwa ajili ya kutekeleza programu kiotomatiki wakati wa kuingia kwa mtumiaji, ambayo inaweza kuwa na malware:

• /etc/profile.d/*, /etc/profile, na /etc/bash.bashrc: Zinatekelezwa kwa kuingia kwa mtumiaji yeyote.
• ~/.bashrc, ~/.bash_profile, ~/.profile, na ~/.config/autostart: Faili maalum za mtumiaji zinazotekelezwa wakati wa kuingia kwao.
• /etc/rc.local: Inatekelezwa baada ya huduma zote za mfumo kuanzishwa, ikionyesha mwisho wa mpito kwenda kwenye mazingira ya watumiaji wengi.

Examine Logs

Mifumo ya Linux inafuatilia shughuli za watumiaji na matukio ya mfumo kupitia faili mbalimbali za log. Logs hizi ni muhimu kwa kutambua ufikiaji usioidhinishwa, maambukizi ya malware, na matukio mengine ya usalama. Faili muhimu za log ni pamoja na:

• /var/log/syslog (Debian) au /var/log/messages (RedHat): Huhifadhi ujumbe na shughuli za mfumo mzima.
• /var/log/auth.log (Debian) au /var/log/secure (RedHat): Hurekodi majaribio ya uthibitishaji, kuingia kwa mafanikio na yasiyofanikiwa.
• Tumia grep -iE "session opened for|accepted password|new session|not in sudoers" /var/log/auth.log kuchuja matukio muhimu ya uthibitishaji.
• /var/log/boot.log: Inashikilia ujumbe wa kuanzisha mfumo.
• /var/log/maillog au /var/log/mail.log: Huhifadhi shughuli za seva ya barua pepe, muhimu kwa kufuatilia huduma zinazohusiana na barua pepe.
• /var/log/kern.log: Huhifadhi ujumbe wa kernel, ikiwa ni pamoja na makosa na onyo.
• /var/log/dmesg: Inashikilia ujumbe wa madereva ya vifaa.
• /var/log/faillog: Hurekodi majaribio ya kuingia yasiyofanikiwa, kusaidia katika uchunguzi wa uvunjaji wa usalama.
• /var/log/cron: Huhifadhi utekelezaji wa kazi za cron.
• /var/log/daemon.log: Inafuatilia shughuli za huduma za nyuma.
• /var/log/btmp: Huhifadhi majaribio ya kuingia yasiyofanikiwa.
• /var/log/httpd/: Inashikilia makosa na log za ufikiaji za Apache HTTPD.
• /var/log/mysqld.log au /var/log/mysql.log: Huhifadhi shughuli za hifadhidata ya MySQL.
• /var/log/xferlog: Huhifadhi uhamishaji wa faili za FTP.
• /var/log/: Daima angalia kwa log zisizotarajiwa hapa.

Linux inahifadhi historia ya amri kwa kila mtumiaji, iliyohifadhiwa katika:

• ~/.bash_history
• ~/.zsh_history
• ~/.zsh_sessions/*
• ~/.python_history
• ~/.*_history

Zaidi ya hayo, amri ya last -Faiwx inatoa orodha ya kuingia kwa watumiaji. Angalia kwa kuingia zisizojulikana au zisizotarajiwa.

Angalia faili ambazo zinaweza kutoa rprivileges za ziada:

• Kagua /etc/sudoers kwa haki za mtumiaji zisizotarajiwa ambazo zinaweza kuwa zimetolewa.
• Kagua /etc/sudoers.d/ kwa haki za mtumiaji zisizotarajiwa ambazo zinaweza kuwa zimetolewa.
• Chunguza /etc/groups ili kubaini uanachama wa vikundi au ruhusa zisizo za kawaida.
• Chunguza /etc/passwd ili kubaini uanachama wa vikundi au ruhusa zisizo za kawaida.

Baadhi ya programu pia zinaweza kuunda log zao:

• SSH: Chunguza ~/.ssh/authorized_keys na ~/.ssh/known_hosts kwa uhusiano wa mbali usioidhinishwa.
• Gnome Desktop: Angalia ~/.recently-used.xbel kwa faili zilizotumiwa hivi karibuni kupitia programu za Gnome.
• Firefox/Chrome: Kagua historia ya kivinjari na upakuaji katika ~/.mozilla/firefox au ~/.config/google-chrome kwa shughuli za kushangaza.
• VIM: Kagua ~/.viminfo kwa maelezo ya matumizi, kama vile njia za faili zilizofikiwa na historia ya utafutaji.
• Open Office: Kagua ufikiaji wa hati za hivi karibuni ambazo zinaweza kuashiria faili zilizovunjwa.
• FTP/SFTP: Kagua log katika ~/.ftp_history au ~/.sftp_history kwa uhamishaji wa faili ambao unaweza kuwa usioidhinishwa.
• MySQL: Chunguza ~/.mysql_history kwa maswali ya MySQL yaliyotekelezwa, ambayo yanaweza kufichua shughuli zisizoidhinishwa za hifadhidata.
• Less: Changanua ~/.lesshst kwa historia ya matumizi, ikiwa ni pamoja na faili zilizotazamwa na amri zilizotekelezwa.
• Git: Kagua ~/.gitconfig na mradi .git/logs kwa mabadiliko ya hifadhidata.

USB Logs

usbrip ni kipande kidogo cha programu kilichoandikwa kwa Python 3 safi ambacho kinachambua faili za log za Linux (/var/log/syslog* au /var/log/messages* kulingana na distro) kwa ajili ya kujenga meza za historia ya matukio ya USB.

Ni muhimu kujua USB zote ambazo zimekuwa zikitumika na itakuwa na manufaa zaidi ikiwa una orodha iliyoidhinishwa ya USB ili kupata "matukio ya ukiukaji" (matumizi ya USB ambazo si ndani ya orodha hiyo).

Installation

pip3 install usbrip
usbrip ids download #Download USB ID database

Mifano

usbrip events history #Get USB history of your curent linux machine
usbrip events history --pid 0002 --vid 0e0f --user kali #Search by pid OR vid OR user
#Search for vid and/or pid
usbrip ids download #Downlaod database
usbrip ids search --pid 0002 --vid 0e0f #Search for pid AND vid

More examples and info inside the github: https://github.com/snovvcrash/usbrip

Review User Accounts and Logon Activities

Chunguza /etc/passwd, /etc/shadow na security logs kwa majina yasiyo ya kawaida au akaunti zilizoundwa na au kutumika karibu na matukio yaliyojulikana yasiyoidhinishwa. Pia, angalia mashambulizi ya sudo brute-force.
Zaidi ya hayo, angalia faili kama /etc/sudoers na /etc/groups kwa ruhusa zisizotarajiwa zilizotolewa kwa watumiaji.
Hatimaye, angalia akaunti zenye hakuna nywila au nywila zinazoweza kukisiwa kwa urahisi.

Examine File System

Analyzing File System Structures in Malware Investigation

Wakati wa kuchunguza matukio ya malware, muundo wa mfumo wa faili ni chanzo muhimu cha habari, kinachoonyesha mfululizo wa matukio na maudhui ya malware. Hata hivyo, waandishi wa malware wanatengeneza mbinu za kuzuia uchambuzi huu, kama vile kubadilisha muda wa faili au kuepuka mfumo wa faili kwa ajili ya uhifadhi wa data.

Ili kupambana na mbinu hizi za anti-forensic, ni muhimu:

• Conduct a thorough timeline analysis using tools like Autopsy for visualizing event timelines or Sleuth Kit's mactime for detailed timeline data.
• Investigate unexpected scripts in the system's $PATH, which might include shell or PHP scripts used by attackers.
• Examine /dev for atypical files, as it traditionally contains special files, but may house malware-related files.
• Search for hidden files or directories with names like ".. " (dot dot space) or "..^G" (dot dot control-G), which could conceal malicious content.
• Identify setuid root files using the command: find / -user root -perm -04000 -print This finds files with elevated permissions, which could be abused by attackers.
• Review deletion timestamps in inode tables to spot mass file deletions, possibly indicating the presence of rootkits or trojans.
• Inspect consecutive inodes for nearby malicious files after identifying one, as they may have been placed together.
• Check common binary directories (/bin, /sbin) for recently modified files, as these could be altered by malware.

# List recent files in a directory:
ls -laR --sort=time /bin```

# Sort files in a directory by inode:
ls -lai /bin | sort -n```
```
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  <span class="mdbook-alerts-icon"></span>
  tip
</p>


Kumbuka kwamba **mshambuliaji** anaweza **kubadilisha** **wakati** ili kufanya **faili kuonekana** **halali**, lakini hawezi **kubadilisha** **inode**. Ikiwa unapata kwamba **faili** inaonyesha kwamba iliumbwa na kubadilishwa kwa **wakati mmoja** na faili zingine katika folda hiyo hiyo, lakini **inode** ni **kubwa zaidi** **kisivyo tarajiwa**, basi **alama za wakati za faili hiyo zilibadilishwa**.

</div>


## Linganisha faili za toleo tofauti la mfumo wa faili

### Muhtasari wa Linganisha Toleo la Mfumo wa Faili

Ili kulinganisha toleo la mfumo wa faili na kubaini mabadiliko, tunatumia amri rahisi za `git diff`:

- **Ili kupata faili mpya**, linganisha directories mbili:
<div class="codeblock_filename_container"><span class="codeblock_filename_inner hljs">bash</span></div>

```bash
git diff --no-index --diff-filter=A path/to/old_version/ path/to/new_version/
```
- **Kwa yaliyobadilishwa**, orodhesha mabadiliko huku ukipuuza mistari maalum:
<div class="codeblock_filename_container"><span class="codeblock_filename_inner hljs">bash</span></div>

```bash
git diff --no-index --diff-filter=M path/to/old_version/ path/to/new_version/ | grep -E "^\+" | grep -v "Installed-Time"
```
- **Ili kugundua faili zilizofutwa**:
<div class="codeblock_filename_container"><span class="codeblock_filename_inner hljs">bash</span></div>

```bash
git diff --no-index --diff-filter=D path/to/old_version/ path/to/new_version/
```
- **Chaguo za kuchuja** (`--diff-filter`) husaidia kupunguza hadi mabadiliko maalum kama vile faili zilizoongezwa (`A`), kufutwa (`D`), au kubadilishwa (`M`).
- `A`: Faili zilizoongezwa
- `C`: Faili zilizokopwa
- `D`: Faili zilizofutwa
- `M`: Faili zilizobadilishwa
- `R`: Faili zilizobadilishwa jina
- `T`: Mabadiliko ya aina (mfano, faili hadi symlink)
- `U`: Faili zisizoshirikiwa
- `X`: Faili zisizojulikana
- `B`: Faili zilizovunjika

## Marejeleo

- [https://cdn.ttgtmedia.com/rms/security/Malware%20Forensics%20Field%20Guide%20for%20Linux%20Systems_Ch3.pdf](https://cdn.ttgtmedia.com/rms/security/Malware%20Forensics%20Field%20Guide%20for%20Linux%20Systems_Ch3.pdf)
- [https://www.plesk.com/blog/featured/linux-logs-explained/](https://www.plesk.com/blog/featured/linux-logs-explained/)
- [https://git-scm.com/docs/git-diff#Documentation/git-diff.txt---diff-filterACDMRTUXB82308203](https://git-scm.com/docs/git-diff#Documentation/git-diff.txt---diff-filterACDMRTUXB82308203)
- **Kitabu: Malware Forensics Field Guide for Linux Systems: Digital Forensics Field Guides**

- [Red Canary – Patching for persistence: How DripDropper Linux malware moves through the cloud](https://redcanary.com/blog/threat-intelligence/dripdropper-linux-malware/)

<div class="mdbook-alerts mdbook-alerts-tip">
<p class="mdbook-alerts-title">
  <span class="mdbook-alerts-icon"></span>
  tip
</p>


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Jifunze na fanya mazoezi ya GCP Hacking: <img src="../../../../../images/grte.png" alt="" style="width:auto;height:24px;vertical-align:middle;">[**HackTricks Training GCP Red Team Expert (GRTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/grte)<img src="../../../../../images/grte.png" alt="" style="width:auto;height:24px;vertical-align:middle;">
Jifunze na fanya mazoezi ya Azure Hacking: <img src="../../../../../images/azrte.png" alt="" style="width:auto;height:24px;vertical-align:middle;">[**HackTricks Training Azure Red Team Expert (AzRTE)**](https://training.hacktricks.xyz/courses/azrte)<img src="../../../../../images/azrte.png" alt="" style="width:auto;height:24px;vertical-align:middle;">

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